Understanding Wi-Fi 4/5/6/6E/7/8 (802.11 n/ac/ax/be/bn)

Chapters 0. Introduction 1.Executive Summary 2.A quick overview of Wi-Fi 3.★Wi-Fi's weak link: your client 4.★Client 'PHY' speed is key 5.Understanding Wi-Fi Overhead 6.Router Marketing Hype 7.MIMO - a wireless revolution 8.Wi-Fi 1/2/3 - legacy 802.11 9.Wi-Fi 4 - 802.11n (HT) 10.Wi-Fi 5 - 802.11ac (VHT) 11.Wi-Fi 6 - 802.11ax (HE) 12.Wi-Fi 6E - 802.11ax in 6 GHz 13.Wi-Fi 7 - 802.11be (EHT) 14.Wi-Fi 8 - 802.11bn (UHR) 15.DFS channels in 5 GHz 16.Router/Wi-Fi setup tips 17.★How to improve Wi-Fi speeds 18.Wi-Fi Range Extenders 19.Wireless Access Points 20.Mesh Wi-Fi Networks 21.A Reality Check 22.★Recommendations 23.Wrapping it all up Extras E1. Ethernet / PoE E2.BufferBloat E3.New home construction tips E4.The cost of 'always on' E5.MoCA - Ethernet over Coax E6.Wi-is-Fi Windows Tools E7.Recommended Cable Modem E8.Powerline Networking / PLC E9.POTS (Telephone) to Ethernet E10.Extending to Outbuilding E11.Debugging 'Internet Down' E12.IoT device won't connect E13.Case Studies Appendices A. Troubleshooting B.Router Specifications C.Netgear 'Mode' D.Throughput

testing E.PHY is asymmetric F.PHY speed tables G.Maximizing Wi-Fi range H.mW, dBm, dB, RSSI I.Signal vs distance J.Channel width vs range K.SINR / SNR / Noise floor L.Router Deep Dive M.WiGig - 802.11ad N.Beware tri-band hype P.Router/AP Placement Q.What 'Stream' means R.Learn more S.Spectral Masks T.Terminology V.Version history W.Call for changes / rants X.Supporting wiisfi.com Y.Contact the author Z.Interesting News 0. Introduction ★ Learn about Wi-Fi and how to obtain real Wi-Fi throughput in excess of 1 Gbps today... Faster website navigation TIP: As you scroll through this paper, headers are 'sticky' and remain docked at the top of the web browser window. Clicking anywhere on a header takes you back to the index at the top of this paper. This paper details how Wi-Fi works in the United States. While most of this paper also applies to other countries, there will be subtle Wi-Fi differences supported channels, Tx power allowed, etc for other countries, for which Wikipedia has the details. 1.95 Gbps real Wi-Fi throughput -- Intel AX210 client to TP-Link AX80(2402 PHY -- 5 GHz band 160 MHz channel 114) Fast Internet: So you just got fast Internet. Congratulations. But now how are you going to obtain that fast speed wirelessly to your client devices? Because if you can't, are you then wasting money every month! on an ISP speed that can't actually be fully utilized? Fast Wi-Fi: Seen right is an example of obtaining 1.95 Gbps in Wi-Fi throughput from a Wi-Fi 6 client device note that this is 'best case' speed -- a more 'typical' 160 MHz channel speed is 1.5+ Gbps. See Terminology [§T] for help with terminology used in this paper.

1. Executive Summary The best router/AP (Access Point) value today: A mid-range Wi-Fi 6 router supporting (1) 4×4 MIMO [§7], (2) all DFS [§15] channels, (3) 160 MHz (HE160) wide channels, and (4) beamforming is a great value today (as of October 2025; one example is seen right) for the needs of most people, either (a) as a single centralized main router, or (b) as an additional 'access point' node in a growing network. See the Recommendation [§22] chapter far below for details and other recommendations. Wi-Fi speeds vs. broadband speeds: Wi-Fi speeds have lagged behind ever increasing Internet speeds. As a result, there has been a very rapid switch in Wi-Fi from Wi-Fi 4 [§9] 2.4 GHz 802.11n to Wi-Fi 5 [§10] 5 GHz 802.11ac, to Wi-Fi 6 [§11] 5 GHz 802.11ax, and now to Wi-Fi 6E [§12] 802.11ax extended into 6 GHz in an attempt to keep up. And now even the next generation Wi-Fi 7 [§13] is out. Router Manufacturers' Marketing Hype: Don't be fooled by the marketing hype [§6] of router manufacturers advertising outrageously high aggregate (all Wi-Fi bands maximum speeds added together) Gbps wireless speeds like "11 Gbps", and for client devices that the industry does not yet make 4×4 MIMO client devices. What really matters is the realistic speed that YOUR Wi-Fi client devices [§3] can actually achieve today often that means a 2×2 MIMO limit, for a single Wi-Fi band. The dirty little secret in the router industry is that virtually ALL routers of the same Wi-Fi generation have the SAME maximum PHY speed to YOUR 2×2 MIMO client device. And likely very similar throughput speeds when standing right next to the router. So the real differentiator is how the router performs 'at distance' for your devices DFS, MIMO, etc, at your location contention, interference, etc.

Wi-Fi's first weakest link -- your client devices: Wi-Fi throughput to a Wi-Fi 6 wireless client device using an 80 MHz channel will likely 'max out' at around 900 Mbps ±100 for 2×2 MIMO and around 650 Mbps ±60 for Wi-Fi 5 no matter what new router is used when right next to the router; and slower at distance. And the far majority of ALL wireless client devices today smartphones, tablets, laptops, etc are still only 2×2 MIMO. So your client device [§4] is almost certainly causing 'slow' Wi-Fi PHY speeds and maybe not your existing AP/router. For Wi-Fi 6 client devices, throughput can 'max out' at around 1 Gbps 1201 Mbps PHY speed for an 80 MHz channel, provided your 2×2 client device is very close to the router, and even faster speeds or an extended range for obtaining 1 Gbps are possible with 160 MHz channels. Wi-Fi's second weakest link -- distance/obstacles: If you are very close to a Wi-Fi access point and line-of-sight, you CAN expect top Wi-Fi speeds but limited to the capabilities of your client device. However, as your 'distance from the router' increases which honestly, is very typical, there are more obstacles walls, floors, etc, and it is 100% normal that Wi-Fi throughput drops off quickly. In Wi-Fi, you really do always want 'full bars'. Installing an Access Point is often a GREAT way to get 'full bars': Wi-Fi can work great, but only if you are physically close to the router or an access point. The closer you are to the Wi-Fi signal source, the better. Do not try to extend Wi-Fi signals wirelessly. Instead, installing an access point [§19] most often a regular router configured as an access point, wired/Ethernet back to the main router, and placing it where needed the most, is an easy and very effective way to dramatically improve Wi-Fi speeds for far away 'at range' client devices. So, upgrade Wi-Fi, or not?:

The only question that really matters when upgrading Wi-Fi is: What are YOUR client PHY speeds [§4] and throughput [§D] now and what will they be after an upgrade? Because, if the majority of client speeds will not increase after an upgrade especially for 'at range' client devices, what is the point in spending money on a new router that won't actually improve Wi-Fi speeds for YOUR client devices? ★ The goal of this paper: This paper was written to help everyone understand current Wi-Fi technology better, so that YOU can make educated Wi-Fi upgrade decisions -- because there is WAY too much hype [§6] out there especially about Wi-Fi speeds -- and router manufacturers are directly to blame. So, let's dig in and learn more about Wi-Fi... 2. A quick overview of Wi-Fi Why is it called "Wi-Fi": See Here's Why It's Called 'Wi-Fi' (huffpost.com) -- "The origin story is all about marketing". Yes, "Wi-Fi" actually did originally mean "Wireless Fidelity" because that is what the Wi-Fi alliance (wi-fi.org) actually placed on their website see right, a capture from May 10, 2000. But the claim today is that "Wi-Fi" has no specific meaning a tiny bit of revisionist history -- and that "Wi-Fi" is just a 'brand' name. And the branding has worked spectacularly! Today, virtually everyone in the world has heard of and uses the term "Wi-Fi". Other examples of brand names (mentalfloss.com) now used by most as 'generic terms' due to wildly successful branding eg: Jet Ski, Jacuzzi, Kleenex, etc. Wi-Fi, or WiFi, or Wifi, or wifi? The alliance that created the "Wi-Fi" brand to promote Wi-Fi throughout the industry clearly states in their "Brand Style Guide" available only to members of that alliance that the correct spelling is -- a capital "W" and "F", lowercase "i", with a hyphen between "Wi" and "Fi". Also, see Microsoft's Writing Style Guide (microsoft.com). First steps: Wi-Fi 1 came out in 1997 and supported PHY speeds of 1 Mbps to 2 Mbps in the 2.4 GHz band.

A couple of years later, in 1999, Wi-Fi 2 increased 2.4 GHz band PHY speeds to 11 Mbps. The big change in 2002: And then everything changed in 2002, when the new Wi-Fi 3 [§8] running in 5 GHz was extended back into the 2.4 GHz band, increasing PHY speeds from 11 Mbps to 54 Mbps. Wi-Fi 3 introduced the core technologies of Wi-Fi that are STILL very much used today, like QAM modulation. Wi-Fi speeds by Wi-Fi generation: Compare the "Wi-Fi 4 20 MHz 1×1" row to the "Wi-Fi 6/7 20 MHz 1×1" row in table below. 'At the same distance' and channel width say the "16-QAM 1/2" column, Wi-Fi PHY speeds have NOT improved that much since 2006 just 19%, from 28.88 to 34.41! An overview of Mbps PHY speed by Wi-Fi generation: Fig 2.1: 'Distance' from the router/AP plays a major role in Wi-Fi PHY speed So upgrading from "Wi-Fi 4" to "Wi-Fi 6/7" alone -- with all other factors the same -- does NOT in and of itself increase Wi-Fi PHY speed very much. Instead, other factors play a MUCH larger role in the dramatic PHY speed increases seen in Wi-Fi... Dramatic PHY speed increases: Modulation and coding has only changed slightly over all Wi-Fi generations. Instead, the dramatic speed increases seen in Wi-Fi over the last 20 years is coming from: (a) increasing channel widths, (b) increasing MIMO, (c) higher MCS levels, and (d) other improvements, summarized above, and in this table:

Typical Wi-Fi 'client device' maximum throughput Version Sym Bits QAM Enc MIMO MHz PHY Mbps Wi-Fi 1 802.11 11.0 2 - 1/11 - 22 2 1 Wi-Fi 2 802.11b 11.0 8 - 1/8 - 22 11 5 Wi-Fi 3 802.11a/g 12.0 6 64 3/4 - 20 54 30 Wi-Fi 4 802.11n 14.4 6 64 5/6 2×2 20 144 115 40 300 240 Wi-Fi 5 802.11ac 14.4 8 256 5/6 1×1 80 433 375 2×2 80 866 750 Wi-Fi 6 802.11ax 17.2 10 1024 5/6 2×2 80 1201 1000 160 2402 1900 Wi-Fi 7 802.11be 17.2 12 4096 5/6 2×2 320 5765 3800 Sym=Millions of symbols per second Bits=bits per symbol MHz=channel width Mbps=Max throughput expected ★ Wi-Fi Coverage, Distance, and Speed: Wi-Fi signal strength decreases at an exponential rate as you move further away from a router. The net result is that Wi-Fi speeds 'step down' to a slower speed 'much more quickly' distance wise near to a router than they do far away from a router. To 'see' this, look at the 'Coverage' row in the Fig 2.1 above, which refers to the percentage of 'maximum router distance' in free space, with no obstacles, ignoring walls, etc. that a particular QAM level will be active for.